Author(s): M. Nafia, S. Lakshita
Paper Details: Volume 4, Issue 4
Citation: IJLSSS 4(4) 18
Page No: 180 – 194
ABSTRACT
Industrialisation is playing a significant role in the generation of hazardous waste. One among such waste include chromium waste. It poses a serious threat on environmental protection and legal compliance. The compounds of chromium are used across many industries, which includes leather tanning, electroplating, metallurgy and chemical manufacturing. This results in the dumping of effluents and sludge that contain chromium which is produced during industrial processes and wastewater treatment. Improper disposal of such waste can lead to severe soil and groundwater degradation and public health risks. In India, the management and disposal of chromium waste come under and is primarily regulated by the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016. It prescribes procedures for the way in which it should be stored, transported and treated. Despite the existence of this legislative framework, improper disposal of chromium continues to persist due to enforcement challenges, inattentive regulative authorities, inadequate mechanisms and lack of disposal facilities. in addition to this, the constraints posed on the industries economically and financially especially by small and medium-scale industries result in improper disposal practices. This paper examines the current legal framework governing chromium waste disposal in India and analyses the practical challenges associated with its implementation across industries that generate chromium waste. The object of the paper is to identify gaps in the law and deficiencies in implementation that curtails proper waste management and environmental protection.
Keywords
Chromium Waste, Hazardous Waste Disposal, Extended Producer Responsibility, Industrial Waste Management, Regulatory Enforcement Challenges
INTRODUCTION
Waste is an unavoidable by-product of human and economic activity. It places a Major Road in almost every aspect of life, starting from domestic households and extending to industrial activities, small commercial entities, large establishment, livestock shelters. It is impossible to perform a human activity without reducing waste. Historical records also show that the concept of waste was recognized in early civilizations, where methods of management of waste and disposal were also recognized. The basic form of waste found was human excreta, and references are found in ancient Roman and Persian regarding management of such waste. The disposal methods used by them indicate that societies were aware of the need to manage such waste even before the development of modern environmental regulation.[1]
The need to address waste management separately evolved significantly with the growth of industrial activity. During the late nineteenth century, or the 1870s to be precise, industries in relation to petroleum and coal fertilizer production started evolving. These developments boosted industrial processes and led to the generation of chemical and industrial wastes. This was gradually recognized as industrial waste often produced as unavoidable by-products of manufacturing activities.[2]
Among the various categories of waste generated through industrial categories, hazardous waste needs particular attention due to the risks it poses to both human health and the environment. Under the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, hazardous waste refers to waste which, by reason of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive, or corrosive characteristics, is likely to cause danger to health or the environment when improperly handled, stored, or disposed of. [3]
This paper examines the adequacy and sufficiency of the existing legal and regulatory framework governing the management and disposal of chromium containing hazardous waste in India. While there are statutory mechanisms under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, concerns arise regarding their proper execution and implementation. The thesis of this paper is to critically analyze the current legal regime regulating chromium waste and to identify legal gaps within the laws that hinder effective compliance, monitoring, and environmental protection. It is done so with the objective of finding out the extent to which the existing laws adequately address hazardous waste governance.
Rationale for Selecting Chromium as the Focus of Study
Chromium has been selected as the focal point of this study among the various heavy metals associated with industrial waste because of its widespread industrial application and the significant environmental risks linked to its improper management. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and chromium are frequently identified in industrial effluents; however, chromium occupies a distinctive position due to the scale at which it is used in manufacturing processes and the persistence of its compounds in the environment. Chromium compounds are extensively utilized in numerous industrial operations, particularly in processes requiring corrosion resistance, pigmentation, and chemical stability. Because of these properties, chromium has become an integral component in several industrial sectors, resulting in the generation of large quantities of chromium-containing residues and wastewater during production and treatment processes. The widespread industrial reliance on chromium therefore makes it a particularly relevant subject of inquiry within the broader field of hazardous waste governance.
Another factor that underscores the importance of studying chromium lies in the environmental and toxicological characteristics associated with its compounds. Chromium exists in multiple oxidation states, the most environmentally significant being trivalent chromium and hexavalent chromium. While trivalent chromium is relatively stable and less harmful in limited quantities, hexavalent chromium is highly toxic, mobile in water, and capable of persisting in soil and groundwater systems for extended periods. Because of these properties, chromium contamination has the potential to spread beyond the original site of discharge and affect surrounding ecosystems and human populations. Scientific studies have repeatedly emphasized that hexavalent chromium is capable of causing serious ecological damage and poses significant health risks when it enters water bodies or accumulates in soil environments. The persistence and mobility of chromium compounds therefore make the management of chromium waste particularly challenging when compared to several other heavy metals that may remain relatively localized in the environment.
Furthermore, chromium has been frequently documented as one of the most commonly detected heavy metals in industrial wastewater across developing economies, especially in regions where industrial clusters operate with limited waste treatment infrastructure. Research examining industrial effluents has demonstrated that chromium contamination often occurs at concentrations capable of degrading soil quality, contaminating groundwater, and disrupting aquatic ecosystems. This prevalence, combined with the hazardous characteristics of chromium compounds, highlights the necessity of examining the legal and regulatory mechanisms governing its management. Consequently, chromium has been chosen as the subject of this study because it represents a significant intersection between industrial development, environmental protection, and hazardous waste regulation, making it an appropriate and relevant focus for analyzing the effectiveness of legal frameworks addressing industrial waste management.
INDUSTRIAL SOURCES AND CHROMIUM WASTE GENERATION
1. LEATHER TANNING INDUSTRY
Tanneries use chromium salts in the process of converting animal hides into leathers. During this process, a large portion of chromium does not bind into the hide and get discharged as sludge. this affluence can lead to soil and water pollution.[4]
2. ELECTROPLATING INDUSTRY
Electroplating industry uses chromium in order to have a proper finish and to increase the durability. This results in generation of rinse water, spent solutions, and sludge containing dissolved chromium. treatment or disposal of this waste in an improper manner can result in chromium entering drainage systems and water bodies, thereby polluting the same where hexavalent chromium poses serious ecological and health risks.[5]
3. CHROMIUM
Chromium is used in metallurgical industries to produce stainless steel and alloys. generate wastes are slag, dust, and wastewater containing chromium. It’s not properly managed it can lead to environmental pollution. with the help of Peer‑reviewed research, it can be inferred that the major causes of chromium pollution ferrochrome production and chromite‑related activities and it also discusses remediation challenges.[6]
4. CHROMITE MINING INDUSTRY
Chromite mining results in reduction of large quantities of mine waste and tailings that contain chromium. Such waste, hexavalent chromium in particular can penetrate or mix with soil, air, and water. This causes serious environmental and health hazards. Mining‑related chromium contamination is widely observed, showing waste from chromite extraction contributes significantly to environmental pollution.[7]
5. PIGMENT AND CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Chromium compounds are used to produce pigments, dyes, and chemical intermediaries. Waste produces during chemical processes often contain high levels of chromium. If discharged without being treated, it contributes to soil and water contamination. this emphasizes the need for stringent hazardous waste controls in chemical manufacturing.[8]
ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF CHROMIUM POLLUTION
The different oxidized states of chromium like Metallic Chromium which is less toxic and hazardous than the other forms, mainly formed during the smelting or other mineral extraction processes and very rarely found in nature due to its high reactivity, chromium III also called Trivalent chromium which is usually formed due to natural processes and generally regarded essential for glucose metabolism in organisms and chromium VI also called the hexavalent chromium considered the most toxic and hazardous form formed due to leather tanning, textile manufacturing, electroplating, chemical manufacturing, wood preservation, steel welding and many other industrial and oxidization process which poses different harms to the environment and deterioration to human health. [9]
Chromium pollution creates great environmental degradation; the coal manufacturing causes damage to air quality through the deposition of chromium dust and fumes causing air contamination and inhaling problems to living organisms. When the untreated waste water from industries is released into rivers, lakes and ground water, chromium gets dissolved easily and more quickly due to its highly water-soluble nature, this leads to contamination of drinking water, irrigation water and surface water. The dumping of chromium containing sludges, solid and industrial waste can also give rise to soil pollution which reduces soil fertility, destructing beneficial microbes, thereby affecting agriculture through long term land degradation and less crop productivity. This also creates food contamination as chromium translocate to the leaves, stem, roots, flowers and grains because of the polluted water and soil affecting photosynthesis, seed germination, enzyme activity and nutrition intake by plants. There are adverse effects to the biodiversity causing extinction of aquatic animals through the chromium released water, when the chromium deposits in the gills and body causing respiratory problems, liver and kidney toxicity, damage of DNA, reduce hatching and death of aquatic animals. Ultimately this results in Bioaccumulation where concentration of toxic substances propagates in one organism over a period of time and Biomagnification where toxicity increases in a progressive manner along with the food chain level, for example: there is a higher health risk to human consuming the fish from chromium polluted water, contaminated by eating the chromium deposited planktons, thereby causing a total destruction in wildlife and human health.[10]
Chromium causes adverse health effects on human’s health, when it is absorbed by lungs, it leads to nasal, lung, sinus caner and respiratory cancer and other pulmonary irritant effects like asthma, chronic bronchitis, chronic irritation, congestion and hyperemia. Chromium substances penetrate into skin and bring upon allergic dermatitis like dryness, erythema, papules, fissuring, scaling, small vesicles and swelling. Chromium also predominantly causes renal injuries and liver effects like derangement of liver cells, lymphocytic and histocyte infiltration. The chromium exposure can also cause reproductive, developmental effects, cardiovascular effects, gastrointestinal effects and other symptoms like dizziness, headache, weakness, erosion and discoloration of teeth.[11]
LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK IN INDIA
1. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT,1986
It is an umbrella legislation which empowers Central Government to frame rules, laws, regulations and standards for controlling the hazardous pollution due to substances like chromium. And it also has the power to stop, close, direct to install treatment plants and regulate industries releasing chromium, when industries violate the set standards for the discharge of effluents of chromium pollutants, air emissions, hazardous sludge and ground water contamination. It ensures authorities make preventive and remedial measures to control the environmental damage.[12]
2. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT HANDLING AND TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT RULES 2008
It is the primary regulation for the efficient management of Hazardous wastes. It ensures the prevention, handling, transportation, minimization, safe disposal, treatment and recycle of hazardous waste. [13]It regulates by classifying the management into three stages like, establishment of facility which requires application to be filed before the state pollution control board and authorization shall be granted within 120 days and only on appropriate equipment and technical capabilities which is valid for a term of five years. The setting up of facility is also monitored by the state pollution control board and Central pollution control board by making approval for design and layout of facilities mandatory.
In the operating stage of facilities, the operators, occupiers, recyclers, re processors, re users are assigned responsibilities of handling hazardous wastes in a safe and environmentally sound manner, take steps to prevent accidents, provide training to employees, packaging and labelling of hazardous wastes, maintain records and submit annual returns on hazardous wastes. It also provides procedures for the transport of wastes across state lines where no objection certificate from the state pollution control board from the place where waste is to be disposed is mandated and transport of hazardous waste across countries is also regulated by obligating the rules under Basel convention.[14]The responsibilities to be fulfilled by generator of hazardous waste are classified as miscellaneous responsibilities such as submission of quarterly reports, segregation of hazardous and non-hazardous waste and disposal only through registered transporters, documentation process like providing transport emergency card and manifest document and ensuring suitability of packaging of hazardous wastes.[15]
Hazardous waste manifest is a document that outlines the responsibilities to be followed by each party from the generation of waste to the point it reaches the treatment, storage and disposal facility involved like occupier, transporter, State pollution control board of the place where waste is generated and the state pollution control board for the place where waste are to be transported and treatment, storage and disposal operator.
3. MANUFACTURE, STORAGE, IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL RULES 1989
It defines hazardous chemical as any chemical which satisfies the criteria of toxicity, flammable, explosiveness and corrosiveness, this serves as the legal basis for regulation of chromium pollution at source as chromium as compounds of chromium satisfy all these criteria. The Rule 4 imposes general responsibility on occupier to identify accident hazards and take adequate steps to prevent accidents and they are obliged to notify the competent authority immediately on the major accidents. Industries handling chromium above the prescribed threshold quantities are to prepare detailed safety report and include the measures taken by the industry to minimize the contamination risks.[16]
It also regulates the import of hazardous chemicals by mandating full disclosure on the chemical composition, toxicity, storage precautions and transport hazards to prevent the illegal import of hazardous chemicals. Every industry must have an onsite emergency plan for accidents involving hazardous chemicals, it is made mandatory for the newly commencing industries and time period of 90 days for the preparation of plan for existing industries and mandates conduct of mock drill every 6 months.[17]
4. THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION (MANAGEMENT OF CONTAMINATED SITES) RULES, 2025, NOTIFIED UNDER THE ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT, 1986,
It constitutes a significant legal framework for addressing contamination caused by hazardous industrial activities, particularly in chromium-intensive sectors such as tanneries, electroplating units, dye and pigment industries, and metal finishing industries.[18] These industries are major sources of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] contamination, which often persists in soil, groundwater, and surface water due to long-term dumping of chromium-bearing sludge, untreated effluents, and hazardous residues. Under the Rules, sites where chromium levels exceed the prescribed threshold after detailed assessment may be officially declared as contaminated sites by the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) or Pollution Control Committee (PCC). The Rules mandate preliminary and detailed site assessments, publication of contaminated sites, preparation of remediation plans, and imposition of clean-up liability on the responsible person in accordance with the polluter pays principle.[19]
5. WATER PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION ACT, 1974
This acts as an important framework for regulating chromium pollution as the discharge of chromium into soil and its penetration into surface water and ground water causes contamination of drinking water and leading to water pollution. This prohibits industries from discharging untreated effluents, poisonous, toxic and polluted water into river, streams and other water bodies. It is fundamental to obtain consent to establish and consent to operate to set up and operate any unit discharging chromium and other toxic substances.it gives strong powers to the pollution control boards to stop, close or regulate the operations in those industries.
6. AIR PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION ACT, 1981
Chromium mist, metal fumes and particulate dusts which are substance of chromium emissions are air pollutants as they are present in the atmosphere and cause harm to the living organisms and environment. The state government may declare any industrial region as air pollution control area and they have to comply with stricter norms and pollution control requirements.it prohibits factories from emitting air pollutants in excess of the standards laid by board.[20]
There are laws which regulate chromium pollution through Industrial safety legislations which governs waste disposal, hazardous processes and workers protection, such as
Factories Act ,1948
It acts as a preventive mechanism for preventing chromium pollution, It prescribes factories to make effective arrangements for the disposal of waste and effluents generated during industrial process, sanitation, cleanliness, ventilation and protection of workers from hazardous conditions to reduce the occupational exposure to toxic compounds of chromium.[21]
7. INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATION ACT,1951
It imposes conditions on the selection of location and licensing of industrial units, which was determined based on the site selection, waste management, safety measures, availability of pollution control devices. This ensures chromium generating industries are not implanted near lakes, river and agricultural lands having adverse effects on environment.[22]
8. E-WATE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2022
It serves as a supplementary framework for regulating the hazardous chromium compounds present in electronic waste and prevents the circulation of hazardous chromium containing products in the market and prescribes the maximum concentration limit for chromium in electronic appliances and mandates disposal, recycling and handling of wastes through extended producer responsibility system.[23]
RELEVANT CASES
Although there are very few judicial recognitions in India in regards with chromium waste, there are certain cases concerning hazardous industrial discharge and tannery pollution indirectly address chromium contamination. Chromium salts are widely used in many industries like leather tanning, and the wastes released by these industries contain chromium residues. Consequently, cases that deal with industrial pollution and hazardous waste management become relevant when analyzing chromium waste governance.
In M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (Kanpur Tanneries Case), the petitioner raised questions regarding the pollution caused by the untreated industrial effluents from tanneries located in Kanpur affecting Ganga River. The Supreme Court held that industries cannot operate if it causes serious environmental degradation and ordered the tanneries to install effluent treatment plant. going against the order would make the industries liable for closure. The judgement helped in emphasizing the industrial responsibility in regards with pollution .[24]
Similarly, in Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India, the Court analyzed the environmental degradation caused by tannery industries in Tamil Nadu because of the effluents let out by industries nearby. The Court recognized the precautionary principle and polluter pays principle as a non-negotiable component of Indian environmental law. the court also ordered industries to give compensation for environmental damage caused by them.[25]
Another significant case is Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural Resource Policy v. Union of India, where the Supreme Court addressed the issues in relation with hazardous waste management and empowered strict enforcement of regulatory mechanisms governing the handling and disposal of toxic industrial waste. The Court ordered the authorities to strengthen monitoring and ensure compliance with hazardous waste management rules.[26]
Institutional Roles and Enforcement
STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS (SPCBS)
The State Pollution Control Boards function as the primary regulatory authorities that take care of the implementation and execution of hazardous-waste management at the state level. In regards with chromium waste, SPCBs monitor industries such as tanneries, electroplating entities, and metallurgical industries that generate chromium-containing waste. They are vested with responsibilities which includes granting approval for generation and disposal of hazardous waste, monitoring industrial discharge, and reassuring compliance with the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016. The state board also look after treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs) and undertake inspections to check whether industries have complied with the laws.[27]
CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD (CPCB)
The Central Pollution Control Board serves as the supreme authority responsible for regulating activities that bring pollution under control across the country. Established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the board formulates environmental standards, guidelines, and monitors frameworks relating to hazardous waste, that includes chromium waste. It also helps the central government in implementing the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The board also does other functions like setting up national inventories, standard of operating procedures operating procedures, and other protocols for safe handling, storage and transportation of Hazardous waste generated by industries.[28]
NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL (NGT)
The National Green Tribunal acts as a specialized judicial authority that ensures enforcement of environmental law in the country and in regards with the disposal of chromium waste, any damage caused to the environment will be heard by NGT. In cases relating to contamination and pollution caused due to chromium or any other hazardous waste, NGT has the power to hear disputes, impose fines and compensation, and order any other remedies. Through its judgement, the Tribunal empowers legislative compliance and ensures that industries and authorities stick on to environmental standards established under hazardous-waste legislation.[29]
IDENTIFICATION OF LEGAL GAPS AND CHALLENGES
Hazardous waste management laws focus more on disposal than source prevention because Hazardous waste rules administer only waste after generation like disposal, transport and treatment rather than adopting reduction technologies, stabilization and methods for reduction of chromium VI to chromium III so it is regarded as disposal centric and also implies the technical legal flaws. There is no strict mandatory obligation for industry to adopt cleaner production technology. [30]
Unlike the legal framework for E-Wastes, plastic wastes and battery waste there is no stronger legal framework for Extended Producer Responsibility in legislative framework for Hazardous wastes, the Rule 4 of the Hazardous Rules 2016, says occupier shall follow prevention, minimization, reuse, recycling and safe disposal but it does not prescribe any conditions on the treatment, storage and disposal facilities. The rule 4 also does not fix any percentage targets, the hazardous waste rules does not provide any quantified recovery or recycling targets for chromium bearing waste. There is no take back obligation such as return system, take back chain and reverse logistics.[31]
There is no sector specific liability framework for chromium intensive industries such as tanneries, electroplating, dye and pigment industries and chromium ore processing. There is lack of industry specific preventive obligations and chromium specific legislation in the hazardous and other waste rules.
There are weak remediation laws, the introduction of notification of the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025, makes a significant step in addressing the chromium pollution but it does not provide source level prevention, mandate cleaner technology and chromium sector specific control. This also reveals a time consuming and multi stage process as identification and reporting by local authority, preliminary site assessment by State pollution Control Board within 90 days, and after the detailed site assessment within 90 days, public authorities publishes the list and must receive the comments from stakeholders within 60 days, final notification is then issued and only then the Remediation plan is prepared by the responsible person within a period of 6 months. And the delayed enforcement of this law has caused procrastination of piling of contaminated sites and restoration process and there is no strict liability for old chromium dumping sites.
The manifest system under the rule 19 of the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 is weak in design, monitoring and enforceability. The system is inefficient due to its paper based and dependency, which increases the risk of manipulation, delayed verification and illegal diversion of hazardous waste during transport. But the law does not strongly ensure actual detoxification, chromium recovery, secure landfill compliance, leachate monitoring.[32]
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
1. India should incorporate a waste hierarchy principle based on the 3R’s Reduce, Reuse and Recycle to minimize the generation of waste at source. There must be a waste minimization and source reduction plan for obtaining environmental clearance and consent to operate from the pollution control board.
2. The hazardous waste management laws shall include the mandatory framework of Extended producer responsibility for the chromium generating industries, which shall include collection targets, take back obligation, recycling targets, credit mechanisms, annual compliance reporting, environmental compensation for shortfall, life cycle responsibility on manufacturers. Chromium recovery credit shall be introduced through EPR certificates upon meeting annual targets.[33]
3. The sector based hazardous waste regulation model shall be adopted like the US Resource conservation and recovery act, it shall help to regulate chromium intensive industries by prescribing sector wise chromium discharge standards, waste handling procedures, compulsory reuse and recovery mechanisms, mandatory disclosure of chromium usage and disposal records.
4. The precautionary principle recognized under the Basel Convention’s waste minimization obligations shall be enforced by mandating industries to adopt cleaner technologies, chromium recovery units closed-loop rinsing systems, zero liquid discharge mechanisms, chromium reduction units converting Cr (VI) to Cr (III), sludge stabilization systems which shall also solve the technical flaws.[34]
5. The Rule 19 of the Hazardous and Other Wastes Rules, 2016 should be amended to introduce a mandatory electronic manifest system integrated with GPS-enabled transport vehicles and digital traceability tools.[35]
CONCLUSION
The study demonstrates that India possesses an extensive legislative framework to regulate hazardous substances and industrial pollution through statutes. despite the presence of multiple legal instruments, the study identifies significant regulatory gaps in implementation, enforcement, monitoring, and accountability. Fragmentation of laws, overlapping jurisdiction among regulatory authorities, inadequate infrastructure for treatment and disposal, weak compliance mechanisms, and insufficient real-time waste tracking continue to undermine the effectiveness of the legal regime. The absence of a dedicated chromium-specific regulatory framework further contributes to inconsistent enforcement and persistent contamination.
Therefore, the paper concludes that while the existing legal framework in India is sufficiently broad in scope, its effectiveness depends upon stronger institutional coordination, stricter enforcement, technological integration through digital traceability and manifest systems, and explicit incorporation of extended producer responsibility obligations for chromium-generating industries. A more integrated, preventive, and technologically enabled regulatory model is essential to ensure sustainable industrial growth while safeguarding environmental and public health interests.
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[2] A. M. Zayed & N. Terry, “Chromium in the Environment: Factors Affecting Biological Remediation”, 249 Plant and Soil 139–156 (2003).
[3] J. Kotas & Z. Stasicka, “Chromium Occurrence in the Environment and Methods of Its Speciation”, 107(3) Environmental Pollution 263–283 (2000).
[4] R. K. Sharma, Chromium Pollution and Waste Management in Tanneries (Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathidasan University, 2018) 15.
[5] Vivek Pandey, A Comparative Study on Electroplating Industrial Operations and Its Impact on Water Quality in Chandigarh (Ph.D. Thesis, GNA University, 2024) ch. 2, available at: https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/590056/6/06_chapter2.pdf (last visited Apr. 3, 2026).
[6] Johan J. Coetzee, Neetu Bansal & Evans M. N. Chirwa, “Chromium in Environment, Its Toxic Effect from Chromite-Mining and Ferrochrome Industries, and Its Possible Bioremediation”, 12 Exposure and Health 51–62 (2020).
[7] Changaiz Khan et al., “Human Exposure to Chromite Mining Pollution, the Toxicity Mechanism and Health Impact”, 10(21) Heliyon (2024).
[8] M. C. Mehta v. Union of India, (1987) 4 SCC 463.
[9] Shiv Prasad, Krishna Kumar Yadav, et.al., “Chromium Contamination and Effect on Environmental Health and Its Remediation: A Sustainable Approaches” 285 Journal of Environmental Management, 112174 (2021)
[10] Dr. Mandeep Verma and Ruchika Verma, “Law and Policies in Relation to Hazardous Waste Management in India: A Critical Study” 13(9) International Journal of Creative Research and Thoughts (2025).
[11] Charles Sneddon, “Chromium and its Negative Effects on the Environment”, available at: https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/health/case_studies/chromium.html (last visited on Apr. 03, 2026)
[12] The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (Act 29 of 1986), ss. 5, 6, 7.
[13] The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, r. 4
[14] The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, rr. 18(2), 18(3).
[15] The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, r. 19
[16] The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, r. 20(3).
[17] The Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008, r. 21.
[18] The Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025, r. 8.
[19] The Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025, r. 9.
[20] The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (Act 14 of 1981), ss. 2(a), 19 and 22.
[21] The Factories Act, 1948 (Act 63 of 1948), ss. 11, 12, 13 and 14.
[22] The Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951 (Act 65 of 1951), ss. 13 and 15.
[23] The E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, rr. 4 and schs. II, III.
[24] M. C. Mehta v. Union of India (Ganga Pollution – Kanpur Tanneries Case), (1987) 4 SCC 463
[25] Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India, (1996) 5 SCC 647.
[26] Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Natural Resource Policy v. Union of India, (2005) 13 SCC 186.
[27] Central Pollution Control Board, Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules: Regulatory Framework, available at: https://cpcb.nic.in (last visited Apr. 3, 2026).
[28] Central Pollution Control Board, “Functions and Waste Management Guidelines”, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India, available at: https://cpcb.nic.in (last visited Apr. 3, 2026).
[29] Central Pollution Control Board, Hazardous Waste Management Regulatory Framework and Responsibilities of Authorities, available at: https://cpcb.nic.in (last visited Apr. 3, 2026).
[30] Srinet Narendra Kothwale, Law and Policies in Relation to Hazardous Waste Management in India: A Critical Study (2020) (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Goa University), available on INFLIBNET Centre.
[31] Harpreet Kaur, Legal Framework for Handling and Management of Hazardous Waste: A Critical Study (2016) (thesis, Panjab University), available on INFLIBNET Centre.
[32] Nath Tripuresh Tiwari, Waste Management Laws in India with Special Reference to Hazardous Substances: A Critical Study (2022) (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Allahabad).
[33] Katharina Kummer, “The International Regulation of Transboundary Traffic in Hazardous Wastes: The 1989 Basel Convention” 41 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 530 (1992).
[34] The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, 1989.
[35] Katharina Kummer Peiry, “Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal”, United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law, available at: https://legal.un.org/avl/pdf/ha/bcctmhwd/bcctmhwd_e.pdf (last visited on Apr. 03, 2026).