International Human Rights Law And The Romani People  A Study Of A People Forgotten By International Human Rights

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Author(s): Advocate Nived K M

Paper Details: Volume 4, Issue 4

Citation: IJLSSS 4(4) 29

Page No: 332 – 348

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ABSTRACT

When discussing patterns of human rights violations, most turn to the more recent and visible instances, such as those of Palestine, Iran, Uyghur and so on. Depending on the sources of information available via media and broadcasting centres, discussions would range from the right to self-determination of the Palestinian and Uyghur people, the persecution of Iranians by their own regime as well as other ongoing human rights issues with significant media coverage. However, there does exist a group that has been largely forgotten by most of the world yet whose story of persecution, discrimination and suppression never ended. This is the Romani community of Europe. They are a diverse indo-aryan community who arrived on the continent over a thousand years ago and have since faced significant oppression by the erstwhile European states, a practice many of their populations continue to perpetuate.

This term paper will attempt to look behind the veil of uncertainty and decipher the history and origin of the Romani people. The paper will then ascertain the lives they live and contrast if they are facing any violations of the statutes and principles upheld in various Human Rights institutions. The paper will primarily look into matters of life and liberty, employment and economic situation as well as social acceptance. The paper is an attempt to showcase the ongoing persecution and maltreatment of the largest ethnic minority of people so that their plight might not be forgotten.

INTRODUCTION

The Romani people, also known as the Roma or Gypsies are one of the largest ethnic minority groups in Europe. Currently, there are said to be anywhere between 10 and 15 million Romani people with the majority of them living in Europe.[1] Significant populations are present in Eastern Europe from across the Balkans and into the lands of the erstwhile Warsaw Pact. It is believed that the Roma came to Europe over a thousand years ago however their arrival is still disputed with various theories being discussed by experts. When discussing the origins of the Romani people, experts have contrasted the significant similarities between them and the people of India with considerable overlaps in their culture and traditions. Two examples of the same can be the caste structure of the Romani people as well as their endogamous marriage customs.[2]

One theory about their arrival speaks of waves of migration from northern India over the course of three waves. The proponents of this theory believe that the population moved to Europe via a combination of voluntary movement and forced displacement. They travelled across the lands of Persia, through Ottoman Turkey and finally entered the Habsburg domains and entered the borders of Christendom. However they faced considerable prejudice and persecution with many European states routinely passing laws for their expulsion and due to such expulsions the Romani people were historically a marginalized community.[3]

The next prevailing theory is that they came to Europe in chains. This is set in the aftermath of the Ghaznavid invasion of India. The theory goes on to suggest that the arrival of the gypsies or Romani into Europe coincides with the enslavement of Indians who are then taken from the subcontinent and settled in Persia, Turkey, and Europe.[4] Some estimates suggest that the muslim invaders may have rounded up and transported half a million slaves from the northwestern parts of the subcontinent.[5]

A glance through history tells the story of how the Romani people due to the scattered nature of their populations usually lived upon the periphery of European societies. Throughout history they indulged in trades such as herders, animal trainers, fortune tellers and entertainers.[6] The stereotypical picture of a Romani is part of a migratory group of people with no sedentary lifestyle. However the degree of migratory nature still remains a point of controversy. What is clear is that the romani usually follow some predator lines pathways in their migratory patterns that bypass modern national boundaries, a glance into the past routes taken by their ancestors still used a thousand years later.

PERSECUTION OF THE ROMANI PEOPLE

ORIGIN OF PERSECUTION

Persecution of the Romani did not end upon their arrival into Europe. In fact, the bulk of the oppression their community faced rose exponentially upon their arrival into medieval Christendom. The persecution against the Romani is called Anti-Tsiganism, anti-Gypsyism, and Romaphobia.  At its heart it is a racist ideology intertwined with religious and political expediency. A walk through history can see this ideology manifest itself through instances of rampant violence, exploitation and expulsion of the Romani people. It is a very pertinent racial ideology driven by the belief of racial superiority over the Romani and an enforcement of exploitative institutional practices to guarantee and maintain a specific power dynamic in the society.[7] Naturally, as with all similar ideologies, it derives its legitimacy from history basing itself on medieval fearmongering, stereotypes, racial prejudice, religious fervour and a denial of the public consciousness of the long history of violence and persecution that the Roma faced throughout history.

When the Romani people first arrived in Europe, they were initially welcomed by the European states. However their lifestyle soon attracted the antagonism of the three dominant entities of European life, the church, the guilds and the state. The monarchy and aristocracy driven by the feudal mindset of the era demanded settlements and sedentary lifestyles incongruent with Romani practices. In addition, their demand for taxes and local exploitation by the nobility only drove a wedge between the two groups. The guilds were generally sceptical of their ‘outsiders’ who could pose a threat to their commercial interests while the church was naturally antagonistic towards what they deemed as heathens and unbelievers whose heresy and magic could derail the ‘natural order’ of God.[8]

The situation of the Romani deteriorated across medieval Europe when Pope Pius V, in 1568 ordered their expulsion from the lands of the Church.[9] Their heathen beliefs and statelessness were the primary reasons for this papal edict which naturally provided the legal impetus for state-sanctioned violence towards these groups. After all, with the papal edict, anti gypsy sentiment now has legal as well as religious sanction. Of course this was not the first instance of medieval persecution since following the fall of Constantinople, the Romani were targeted due to a misguided belief that they were muslims who are aligned with the Islamic world.[10] across the balkan world, the Romani were rounded up and exploited as slaves in a variety of menial jobs by all institutions of the state from the merchants to the aristocracy and the church.

An instance of persecution can be seen as to how mixed marriages between the Romani and Christian Europeans were not just frowned upon by outright outlaws. In many cases, the priest who conducted such marriage rites would find themselves excommunicated by the church itself.[11] We have even recorded instances of such a practice. In 1776, the very year the American Revolution began, Constantin, the Prince of Moldavia, issued a proclamation banning such marriages calling them ‘contrary to human nature’, against the Christian faith and hateful to God’, ‘evil and wicked’ and how the children of such unions will remain in perpetual servitude.[12]

Shifting across the Alpine mountains, the situation of the gypsies did not improve in the lands of protestantism. For instance, in 1899 we had the kingdom of Bavaria instituting a central office in Munich authorizing its police department to collect information about all the Romani people in their lands despite the fact of whether they committed any crime or not.[13] This overarching police supervision continued into the Weimar Republic who placed the entire Roma population of Germany under permanent police surveillance. Finally, this culminated in the second world war and a level of untold cruelty and violence done to the Roma people by the National Socialists driven by their genocidal racial policies.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The rise of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialists presented an existential threat to the ideals of diversity in 20th century Europe. Driven by a racially motivated genocidal regime, the Nazis were determined to exterminate anyone whom they perceived to be of non-Aryan blood. The goal was to create a ‘racially clean’ Germany driven upon the ideals of Aryan supremacy and superiority.[14] While the primary targets of nazi persecution were the Jews of Europe, the attention of the SS soon turned towards the Romani people.

The nazis held the belief that the Roma were a group that was originally aryan due to their indian origin but had since then long been ‘corrupted’ by ingratiating with lesser people. The Nazis determined that nearly all the Roma people in Germany were of mixed blood, thus deeming them degenerate and criminal.[15] Persecution began as early as 1933, when camps known as Zigeunerlager were created specifically designed to hold the gypsy population.[16] The Nuremberg laws set about to criminalize any marital relations between the Roma and the rest of the German citizenry with the stated goal to prevent the creation of ‘racially suspect offspring’.[17]

Any individual who had at least 2 great-great-grandparents as gypsies were classified as Roma themselves and could potentially be sent to Auschwitz. The Roma were deemed as social deviants and faced routine involuntary sterilization at the hands of nazi authorities under the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring as well as the Regulations for the Security and Reform of Habitual Criminals and Social Deviants.[18] This is legally sanctioning forced sterilization done by the nazi state towards a scattered, disorganized and disenfranchised community.

The end of the war saw information about nazi atrocities towards the Roma being declassified which painted a horrifying picture. The majority of the Roma across many states in Eastern Europe were almost completely exterminated. The crimes of the Nazis took the lives of nearly half a million Roma, which was then believed to be nearly half their entire population.[19] Unfortunately, the true number of victims could never be understood due to nazi practises of erasing or burning records and the fact that many victims’ families were unable to report their losses.[20] To the outrage of the Roma community, the succeeding German state did not even acknowledge the racial motivation behind this genocide until the 1980s.[21]

ISSUES FACED BY THE ROMANI PEOPLE

With the end of the Second World War, the world entered into what could be considered relatively as the most peaceful period in human history. The turn of the second half of the 20th century saw the rise of human rights as an integral aspect of international law as well as its incorporation into just cogens principles. However while on paper the standards of human rights were improving across the board, communities like the Roma were left behind.

There is an existing definition for anti-Roma discrimination; however, it is not legally binding. As per the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA)

Antigypsyism/anti-Roma discrimination is a manifestation of individual expressions and acts as well as institutional policies and practices of marginalization, exclusion, physical violence, devaluation of Roma cultures and lifestyles, and hate speech directed at Roma as well as other individuals and groups perceived, stigmatized, or persecuted during the Nazi era, and still today, as “Gypsies.” This leads to the treatment of Roma as an alleged alien group and associates them with a series of pejorative stereotypes and distorted images that represent a specific form of racism.[22]

We have seen earlier that due to the nature of persecution and the cycle of expulsion of the Roma community have left them a scattered set of people unable to organise effectively. This has led to a fragmentation of their community leading to more social isolation and magnetization. In some cases, their marginalisation and fragmentation were the reasons why they continue to face discrimination from society in areas of employment, housing and education.[23] Furthermore, attempts by European states to integrate these communities have led to policies of forced assimilation at the cost of their individual cultural practices, traditions and heritage.

Examples of the above can be seen throughout the Eastern Bloc. The communist parties of Eastern Europe attempted to assimilate the disparate Roma communities through the provision of jobs and housing.[24] However this economic support came upon the backdrop of significant cultural repression aimed at eliminating the existing ethnic segregation in these states. A significant incident would be the decisions taken by the socialist leadership of Poland and Czechoslovakia to curb the cultural traditions of the Roma by banning nomadism. This was enforced via a series of brutal tactics such as dissolving the caravans, shooting the horses and banning gatherings of the Roma people.[25] In many instances, the governments of Eastern Europe attempted to disperse the Roma people further in an attempt to break their ethnic bonds and force assimilation. This only resulted in further fragmentation and marginalisation of the already isolated Roma community.

Even today, many studies indicate that there are prevailing negative stereotypes about the Romani people which has led to ongoing discriminatory practices and attitudes across swaths of European society. Adding to this are the issues of poverty, marginalization, issues in accessing healthcare, education and employment which exacerbates their plight.[26] These negative stereotypes can range from warnings given to children to that they might not misbeheave such as  “If you don’t behave, I’ll sell you to the Gypsies!” or slurs with ethnic origin such as the English word “gypped” to denote that someone is cheated deeply ingrains indirect victimization and marginalisation.[27]

Furthermore, following centuries of persecution, the Romani people were never allowed to settle down to form a proper community. This could have contributed to the development of a migratory lifestyle they lead today. However this only makes their documentation more difficult and governments will only have estimates on their socio economic development and not concrete figures.[28] as per some estimates the unemployment rate for the gypsy people can be as high as 80%.[29] all this paints a picture of a people who faced tragedy after tragedy for much of their existence only to be left behind in the march of progress that Europe led over the past century

ROMANI PEOPLE AND INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS

The romani people have as we saw above continued to face violations of human rights even in the modern age. This segment will deal with the types of violations that can be seen to be faced by the Romani people in Europe today. The first question is whether the Romani people come under the protection of the ICCPR then under what context. Here we turn to the idea of minorities. The first argument made is that the Romani people are minorities that exist in Europe.

ARE THE ROMANI PEOPLE A MINORITY UNDER INTERNATIONAL LAW?

As per the Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, Francesco Capotorti defined a minority as follows

“A group numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a State, in a non-dominant position, whose members—being nationals of the State—possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population and show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity, directed towards preserving their culture, traditions, religion or language.”

In the context of the Romani, we must note that they are a group of people who are numerically inferior in the states of Europe. Their population is estimated to only be around 10 and 15 million Romani people with the majority of them living in Europe.[30] Excluding Russia and Turkey, the population of Europe exceeds 500 million and this therefore is merely anywhere between 2 and 3 percent of the total European population. Therefore numerically the Romani fulfil the criteria set about here.

Secondly comes the question of ethnic differences. For this we turn to the history of the Romani people. We have noted that they are primarily either migrants who came in waves or slaves who were brought into Europe in the aftermath of the Ghaznavid invasion of India. The arrival of the gypsies or Romani into Europe coincides with the enslavement of Indians who are then taken from the subcontinent and settled in Persia, Turkey, and Europe.[31] Therefore, they are ethnically different from the rest of the indigenous European population.

Adding to this are other religious and linguistic differences between the Romani people and the rest of Europe. Romani religious beliefs taken on a syncretization of their Hindu roots and Christian beliefs.[32] This means that there are differences between the religious beliefs of the majority Christian faith and those followed by the Romani which is a mix of Christian as well as Hindu traditions, beliefs and so on. Furthermore, it was these cultural and religious differences that gave theocratic leaders in Europe their perceived justification to persecute the Romani people. Adding to this is the fact that the Roma people have a separate language called the Romanes, or Romani Čhib which can help us conclude that the Romani indeed have linguistic and religious differences from the rest of Europe.[33]  Thus, we can conclude that the Romani are indeed a minority under the ambit of the internationally recognised definition given above.

There is however the question of whether these rights to a minority can be given to the Roma since they are generally considered stateless or migratory. Here comes the question of can these rights be given to a community that is not the citizen of that state. Under international law, there is an absolute affirmation of such a situation with the Romani people being guaranteed minority rights despite not being citizens of the state in question.[34] The argument made is that while states can themselves regulate the degree of political rights given to the non-citizens who are minorities, they cannot deprive other rights including minority rights from these people.

HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS FACED BY THE ROMANI PEOPLE

We have seen earlier that since the start, the Romani people have faced significant issues in Europe. We have seen the degree of persecution they faced in many European kingdoms, the violent genocide of the Second World War as well as the post-war communist era which continued to see a deteriorating situation for the Romani people. Even now they face significant marginalisation, persecution and social exclusion. In this context we turn to some of the major human rights provisions and ideals that have been denied to the Romani people.

VIOLATION OF THE RIGHT TO LIFE

The General Comment No. 14 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights calls out for each state that all sections of the population must have the highest attainable standard of facilities that can help the population.[35] It goes on to say that these facilities must also be within a safe physical distance that is reachable for all the people living in the state in question. Adding to this, the General Comment also stated that there can be no denying or limiting equal access to any anyone including minorities. In this context we turn to the Romani people. The Romani people still face issues when it comes to accessing healthcare facilities.[36] It has been noted that due to serious issues of documentation and discrimination, the Romani people face barriers in accessing healthcare.[37] There is even evidence that communication barriers, societal prejudice, documentation issues lead to the Romani people facing direct discrimination in healthcare access which is a direct violation of this General comment.

This is also a violation of Article 6 of the ICCPR. The article 6 states that every individual has the inherent right to life which is protected by the law and no derogation is allowed for the same.[38] Adding to this, General Comment No. 36 of Article 6 of the ICCPR states that the duty to protect life extends to the provision of measures done with the intention to ensure access to proper healthcare and sanitation and promotion of other general conditions.[39] Adding to this is the case of Nell Toussaint v. Canada (2018) where the Human Rights Committee held that if a state denied access to a national healthcare program of a nation due to the migrant status of the individual, it is a violation of ICCPR as states have an obligation to provide every individual access to existing healthcare services.[40] Thus, issues of access to healthcare is a denial of the right to life of the individual. The Romani who are facing issues of access to healthcare are thus facing a denial to the right to life guaranteed under the ICCPR.

RACIAL DISCRIMINATION

The first article of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination defines discrimination as

“any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.” [41]

Article 2 goes on to provide that there exists an obligation to states to eliminate any forms of racial discrimination in their own territories and not to promote any such activities. Adding to this, Article 4 states that the nations also have to ensure that no policy of promotion of hatred or discrimination towards any particular race is present within their territory.

In this context, we turn to the issues faced by the Romani people today. The Roma people are targeted by many groups in Europe due to their distinction from the rest of the indigenous European communities. These distinctions lead to restrictions that the Roma face upon their enjoyment or human rights and affect their social, cultural, economic and many other fields of life. Thus, these are violations of the CERD. The first major evidence of this can be seen in the policies of powerful political parties across Europe such as the AfD of Germany, Lega of Italy, Fides of Hungary and the National Rally of France, all of whom hold views that the Roma are not Europeans but are in fact a ‘nuisance’.[42]  Further examples of the same are enumerated below.

Many studies indicate that there are prevailing negative stereotypes about the Romani people which has led to ongoing discriminatory practices and attitudes across swathes of European society. These negative stereotypes can range from warnings given to children so that they might not misbehave, such as  “If you don’t behave, I’ll sell you to the Gypsies!” or slurs with ethnic origin such as the English word “gypped” to denote that someone is cheated deeply, which ingrains indirect victimization and marginalisation.[43]

In a study published in 2020, around half the Romani people who took part in the survey for the study experienced racial harassment driven by hatred towards the Roma in the 12 months preceding the survey.[44] 43 percent of the Romani people who took part in the survey stated that they have faced discrimination when they tried to rent or buy housing.[45] Adding to this, many groups in Europe have even blamed the Romani people for the spread of the coronavirus in the continent. Explicit restrictions were placed around Roma communities in the wake of the pandemic along with racially driven discriminatory statements targeting them for the alleged spread of the virus.[46]

Another example can be the 2012 violence in France that led to the targeted dismantling of 500 Roma camps and the expulsion of the Romani people by the then-French government.[47] These targeted government actions on one particular ethnic minority are tantamount to racial discrimination done by one of the most liberal states on the continent.[48] All this goes to show that even in the most progressive parts of Europe, despite the ratification and affirmation of several provisions of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

ECONOMY AND EMPLOYMENT

The ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111) calls on all states to undertake measures to guarantee equality of opportunity and treatment when it comes to matters of occupation and employment.[49] Articles 1 to 2 call for the elimination of any form of discrimination that can be done on the grounds of race, sex, gender, social origin etc.[50] The 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work adds on to this by calling for non discrimination in employment and occupation as well as enjoyment of equality of opportunity.[51]

Roma people have reported in 2025 that at least a third of them have been discriminated against when they attempt to seek work.[52] This is discrimination that they face due to their ethnicity, origin, cultural differences and so on. This leads to a situation where they are facing barriers in employment due to their social origin which is a violation of the ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111) as well as the 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work. All this led to a situation with nearly to a third of all Romani people currently unemployed with more than a third facing long term unemployment.[53] Due to these factors as of 2025, 70% of the Romani people live in poverty.[54]

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

We have seen above the various issues faced by the Romani people and how the ones discussed above continue violation of human rights guaranteed under various international human rights treaty obligations. This leads us to the issue of what can be done to alleviate the situation of the romani people.

The first major solution is to institute a Pan-European legal framework on combating any and all forms of racial discrimination that the Romani people face. It must be noted that the primary reason for the issues facing the Roma people is the negative perception that they face. This relates to the general stereotypes against the Roma that fuel prejudice and discrimination today. The first step would be to combat this prejudice. While there exist general pan-European legal frameworks on combating racial discrimination it would be pertinent to note that they have not given proper resolution to the discrimination faced against the Roma. Thus, the need of the hour is a legal framework directed solely towards the racial discrimination that the Roma face aimed at removing any and all forms of stereotypes and prejudices that they face.

Secondly comes the issue of documenting the Roma community. It has been noted that the Roma people have not been properly documented which leads to issues of being left out of national welfare schemes across Europe. This means that the next step would be to initiate pan-European recording and documenting of the Roma population driven with the sole intention to ascertain their general well-being, numbers, situation on the ground and so on. However this faces issues as the Roma do not tend to trust authorities in light of the history of persecution and discrimination that they face.[55] This issue will take time to overcome. The proper implementation of the pan-European legal framework to prevent discrimination of the Roma can percolate into better training of government officials and police officers which in time can help instil trust in public authorities among the Romani people.

Another measure independent of the above two could be the celebration of romani culture by the governments of European states. They can set up programmes to glamorise Romani traditions, bring awareness to their history and situation, and promote the uniqueness and colourful traditions of the Romani people. All that can be done with the goal of showcasing how much Europe benefits from the diversity the Roma bring to their pan-European community. However measures must be taken to ensure that this celebration of Roma identity does not in itself lay the groundwork for their future discrimination.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the Roma community faces significant barriers in the enjoyment of their Human Rights guaranteed by various International statutes and institutions. Their history of persecution has not abated since the fall of Nazi Germany or of the Iron Curtain. Even today they face increasing prosecution with the rise of populism across many nations of Europe. Therefore measures have to be undertaken to ensure that this group would not be forgotten by the mainstream of Europe. They are a group marked by resilience, suffering and tragedy and their story deserves to have its moment in the sun. Only time will tell if indeed the Roma will remain as the forgotten people of Europe. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WEBSITES

  • Roma by BRITANNICA –  https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom
  • Debunking Myths & Revealing Truths about the Roma by  European Network Against Racism – https://www.enar-eu.org/wp-content/uploads/roma_final_pdf.pdf
  • Zigeunerlager (Term) by encyclopaedia-gsr.eu –  https://encyclopaedia-gsr.eu/lemma/zigeunerlager-term-en-1-0/
  • Roma.org
  • Working definition of antigypsyism/anti-Roma discrimination by International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance – https://holocaustremembrance.com/
  • Roma and Sinti Holocaust – Recognition, education and justice by European Parliament – https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/751424/EPRS_BRI%282023%29751424_EN.pdf
  • Roma: what discrimination do they face and what does EU do? by  European Parliament – https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20200918STO87401/roma-what-discrimination-do-they-face-and-what-does-eu-do
  • Minority Rights: International Standards and Guidance for Implementation by UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner – https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/MinorityRights_en.pdf
  • Roma and Travellers in the EU: more jobs but discrimination persists by European Agency on Fundamental Rights –  https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/2025/roma-and-travellers-eu-more-jobs-discrimination-persists
  • Study reveals unique challenges facing Roma migrants in children’s services by Lancaster University –  https://portal.lancaster.ac.uk/portal/news/article/study-reveals-unique-challenges-facing-roma-migrants-in-childrens-services

ONLINE ARTICLES

  • The Roma in Europe Today: Patterns of Discrimination by Allison Redman – https://www.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/colleges/hclas/geog/geog_honors_redman.pdf
  • Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle by Dena Ringold Mitchell A. Orenstein and Erika Wilkens –  https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/600541468771052774/pdf/30992.pdf
  • Europe’s Overlooked Roma People by Cameron Hewitt and Honza Vihan – https://www.ricksteves.com/watch-read-listen/read/articles/roma-people
  • Research on Roma health and access to healthcare: state of the art and future challenges, by Maria Eva Földes and Alina Covaci,  – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3282005/  
  • Anti-Roma Racism is Spiralling during COVID-19 Pandemic by Margareta Matache and Jacqueline Bhabha – https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7348427/
  • Systemic Exclusion of Roma from Employment, European Roma Rights Centre by Ann Hyde – https://www.errc.org/roma-rights-journal/systemic-exclusion-of-roma-from-employment

JOURNAL ARTICLES

  • The Roma Population: Migration, Settlement, and Resilience, by A. K. M. Ahsan Ullah, Muhammad Azizuddin  and Jannatul Ferdous (2024)
  • The Romani–Indian Diaspora: Migration, Persecution and Statelessness by Atanu Mohapatra and Chandan K. Panda (2024).
  • Roma versus Gypsy: Do Politically Correct Terms Trigger More Minority-Friendly Reactions? By Raluca Toma (2019)

BOOKS

  • Donald Kendrick, Historical Dictionary of Gypsies (2nd ed. 2007).
  • Willian L Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Thrid Reich (electronic edition. 2011).

STATUTES, RULES, COMMENTS, REGULATIONS AND DECLARATIONS

  • ICSER, General comment No. 14 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2000).
  • ICCPR
  • ICCPR, CCPR/C/GC/36 General Comment No. 36 of Article 6 of the ICCPR (2018)
  • ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111)
  • ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 1998

CASE LAW

  • Toussaint v. Canada, CCPR/C/123/D/2348/2014, 2018

[1]Roma, BRITANNICA, (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom

[2]A. K. M. Ahsan Ullah, Muhammad Azizuddin  and Jannatul Ferdous, The Roma Population: Migration, Settlement, and Resilience, 9 SOC. SCI. 476 (2024).

[3]Ibid.

[4]Atanu Mohapatra and Chandan K. Panda, The Romani–Indian Diaspora: Migration, Persecution and Statelessness, 51 IND. HIST. REV. 205-221 (2024).

[5]Ibid.

[6]Roma, BRITANNICA, (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom

[7]Debunking Myths & Revealing Truths about the Roma, European Network Against Racism (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.enar-eu.org/wp-content/uploads/roma_final_pdf.pdf

[8]DONALD KENRICK, HISTORICAL DICTIONARY OF THE GYPSIES xxxviii (2nd ed. 2007).

[9]Atanu Mohapatra and Chandan K. Panda, The Romani–Indian Diaspora: Migration, Persecution and Statelessness, 51 IND. HIST. REV. 205-221 (2024).

[10]ibid

[11]ibid

[12]Ghibanescu, Gheorghe. ‘The Excommunication of Mixed Marriages with Gypsies’. Ion Neculcea 1 (1921): 119–21.

[13]Roma, BRITANNICA, (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom

[14]WILLIAN L SHIRER, RISE AND FALL OF THE THIRD REICH, 245 (electronic edition. 2011).

[15]Allison Redman, The Roma in Europe Today: Patterns of Discrimination, HOFTRA.EDU (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/colleges/hclas/geog/geog_honors_redman.pdf

[16]Zigeunerlager (Term), encyclopaedia-gsr.eu,(April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://encyclopaedia-gsr.eu/lemma/zigeunerlager-term-en-1-0/

[17]Allison Redman, The Roma in Europe Today: Patterns of Discrimination, HOFTRA.EDU (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/colleges/hclas/geog/geog_honors_redman.pdf

[18]Ibid.

[19]Roma and Sinti Holocaust – Recognition, education and justice, European Parliament (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023/751424/EPRS_BRI%282023%29751424_EN.pdf

[20]Ibid

[21]Ibid

[22]Working definition of antigypsyism/anti-Roma discrimination, International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM) https://holocaustremembrance.com/

[23]A. K. M. Ahsan Ullah, Muhammad Azizuddin  and Jannatul Ferdous, The Roma Population: Migration, Settlement, and Resilience, 9 SOC. SCI. 476 (2024).

[24]Dena Ringold Mitchell A. Orenstein and Erika Wilkens, Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle, World Bank Publications (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/600541468771052774/pdf/30992.pdf

[25]Raluca Toma, Roma versus Gypsy: Do Politically Correct Terms Trigger More Minority-Friendly Reactions?, Central European University (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), file:///C:/Users/nived/Downloads/toma_raluca.pdf

[26]Ibid

[27]Cameron Hewitt and Honza Vihan, Europe’s Overlooked Roma People, Rick Steves Europe (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.ricksteves.com/watch-read-listen/read/articles/roma-people

[28]A. K. M. Ahsan Ullah, Muhammad Azizuddin  and Jannatul Ferdous, The Roma Population: Migration, Settlement, and Resilience, 9 SOC. SCI. 476 (2024).

[29]Allison Redman, The Roma in Europe Today: Patterns of Discrimination, HOFTRA.EDU (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/colleges/hclas/geog/geog_honors_redman.pdf

[30]Roma, BRITANNICA, (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rom

[31]Atanu Mohapatra and Chandan K. Panda, The Romani–Indian Diaspora: Migration, Persecution and Statelessness, 51 IND. HIST. REV. 205-221 (2024).

[32]Religion and Beliefs, Roma.org (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://rroma.org/traditions/religion-and-beliefs/

[33]Language, Roma.org (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://rroma.org/romanes-language/

[34]Minority Rights: International Standards and Guidance for Implementation, UN Human Rights Office of High Commissioner (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/MinorityRights_en.pdf

[35]ICSER, General comment No. 14 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2000).

[36]Raluca Toma, Roma versus Gypsy: Do Politically Correct Terms Trigger More Minority-Friendly Reactions?, Central European University (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), file:///C:/Users/nived/Downloads/toma_raluca.pdf

[37]Maria Eva Földes and Alina Covaci, Research on Roma health and access to healthcare: state of the art and future challenges, National Library of Medicine (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3282005/

[38]ICCPR, 1966, art 8.

[39]ICCPR, CCPR/C/GC/36 General Comment No. 36 of Article 6 of the ICCPR para 26 (2018).

[40]Toussaint v. Canada, CCPR/C/123/D/2348/2014, 2018

[41]CERD, 1969, art 1.

[42]Present Days, Roma.org, (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://rroma.org/roma-history/present-days/

[43]Cameron Hewitt and Honza Vihan, Europe’s Overlooked Roma People, Rick Steves Europe (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.ricksteves.com/watch-read-listen/read/articles/roma-people

[44]Roma: what discrimination do they face and what does EU do?, European Parliament (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20200918STO87401/roma-what-discrimination-do-they-face-and-what-does-eu-do

[45]Ibid.

[46]Margareta Matache and Jacqueline Bhabha, Anti-Roma Racism is Spiraling during COVID-19 Pandemic, National Library of Medicine (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7348427/

[47]Atanu Mohapatra and Chandan K. Panda, The Romani–Indian Diaspora: Migration, Persecution and Statelessness, 51 IND. HIST. REV. 205-221 (2024).

[48]Allison Redman, The Roma in Europe Today: Patterns of Discrimination, HOFTRA.EDU (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.hofstra.edu/pdf/academics/colleges/hclas/geog/geog_honors_redman.pdf

[49]ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958, No. 111 art.1 -2.

[50]Ibid.

[51]ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 1998.

[52]Roma and Travellers in the EU: more jobs but discrimination persists, European Agency on Fundamental Rights (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/2025/roma-and-travellers-eu-more-jobs-discrimination-persists

[53]Ann Hyde, Systemic Exclusion of Roma from Employment, European Roma Rights Centre (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://www.errc.org/roma-rights-journal/systemic-exclusion-of-roma-from-employment

[54]Roma and Travellers in the EU: more jobs but discrimination persists, European Agency on Fundamental Rights (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://fra.europa.eu/en/news/2025/roma-and-travellers-eu-more-jobs-discrimination-persists

[55]Study reveals unique challenges facing Roma migrants in children’s services, Lancaster University (April 8, 2026, 10:40 PM), https://portal.lancaster.ac.uk/portal/news/article/study-reveals-unique-challenges-facing-roma-migrants-in-childrens-services

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